111 0 obj <>stream Largely parallel vertical lines of demarcation and a HRR sufficient to reach any horizontal restriction above the fuel package have been provided as the reason for columnar patterns (NFPA 2014). The fire burned for approximately two minutes post-flashover. An approximate 2-square foot (0.19m2) grid was established and the participants were asked to select the grid space that most represented their area of origin. A U-shaped burn pattern found on the top of floor joists, caused by fire burning down through the floor. The following keywords were used for the literature review, including: fire patterns, fire effects, fire investigation, arson investigation, burn patterns and burn indicators. Proceedings of the Society of Air Safety Investigators Annual Seminar, Beyler C (1986) Fire plumes and ceiling jets. The LEAA report, after listing the indicators, identified that these indicators have received little or no scientific testing and that there appears to be no published material in the scientific literature to substantiate their validity (Boudreau et al. The statistics can be found in Additional file 1 associated with this review paper. A pattern may encompass the varying DOFD areas as long as the line of demarcation are linked by direction. The characteristics that are proposed here include the type, magnitude, direction and proximity (e.g. International Association of Arson Investigators 5:119120, Crofton, MD, Kennedy J (1959) Fire and Arson Investigating. Each fire was said to have only burned for 2min in full room involvement. Straeter and Crawford (1955) text identified that the point of deepest char in the wood is likely to be the point of origin of the fire. hVn1ylTQ]BRBJ deR,B}VgHS(6-gl eU48+8 Gottuks (1992) results were gases from the layer burning and escaping, while Wieczorek et al. Forensic Science International 147:4957, Boudreau J, Kwan Q, Faragher W, Denault G (1977) Arson and Arson Investigation-Survey and Assessment. The fire testing conducted for fire patterns has evolved with the changing definition of the term. Each fire pattern study has the three most common flashover correlations summarized within Additional file 1. The objective of this paper is to review the work that has been done to observe or measure varying damage along compartment and content surfaces, identify fire patterns, identify causal factors for the fire patterns and apply this information within a process to identify an area of origin, as well as identify gaps and propose new approaches. 1997). The study divided the use of fire patterns into fire effects and fire dynamics attributes and called for some form of weighting of fire dynamics attributes in the overall decision process. Beginning in March of 2005, a series of 20 full-scale fire pattern tests were conducted at Eastern Kentucky University (Gorbett et al. The square root of height of the opening is the relevant determinant of the max velocity (Babrauskas 1980; Quintiere 1995). Engineering Guide, Society of Fire Protection Engineers, Maryland (USA), Shanley J, Alletto W, Corry R, Herndon J, Kennedy P, Ward J (1997) The United States Fire Administration (USFA) Program for the Study of Fire Patterns. For example, an investigator would assign a number 5 char level to a piece of wood that had the number of cracks occurring up to 2 per centimeter with widths approximately the thickness of a five-cent piece (Keith and Smith 1984). It is important to evaluate the evolution of the term fire pattern to better evaluate what literature exists. The flame plume is also the most predominant contributor to damage and ignition of secondary and tertiary contents early in the fire prior to the contribution by the upper layer (Jahn et al. 2003). It is called "U" shape development because of the shape of the letter U in correlation to a graph, skills developed in the "U shaped" fashion begin on a high position on a graph's Y-axis.The skills start out at a high performance level . 2007-DN-BX-K236. This was observed in rooms, which had flashover conditions where clean burn areas were produced under windows away from the origin. Plenary Paper Presented at the International Symposium on Fire Investigations. When lacking a systematic approach to solving complex problems, many professions have turned to decision support frameworks, tools or methods, the intent of which are to guide the decision by asking questions and helping to assess the weight or importance of variables. While much of the research was based more on the tenability limits and associated dynamics in under-ventilated fires, they reported on a few forensic-based conclusions. However, not all fire investigators have the same level of education and training, or appreciation for the interaction of the fire in its environment. Two tests were completed with television sets placed on a wood stand next to an upholstered chair. Average velocities of natural ventilation flows through windows have been recorded between 0.5 and 1.0m/s (1.14.4 mph) depending on the sill height and elevation of the opening within the wall (Kerber 2010; Kerber and Walton 2005; Quintiere and McCaffrey 1980). The only point of contention then would be the manner and reason in which the ventilation opening was created. Finally, an area that is white in color surrounded by soot areas should not be classified as a clean burn area until closer examination is performed. The first insistence that decision analysis should be considered for fire patterns analysis was in 2010 (Gorbett et al. The forces bearing on the fire were identified in this text as (a) combustibles involved, (b) openings and ventilation, (c) winds and drafts, (d) explosions and (e) variations from normal burning. Only one article was identified related to the use of visible char appearance in identifying varying DOFD where quantitative measures were attempted (Keith and Smith 1984). Charles C. Thomas Publisher, Illinois (USA), Francis J, Chen A (2012) Observable characteristics of flashover. The location of gasoline spilled was varied between the floor and on/around furniture items. The researchers also concluded that the fire pattern at the true origin persisted in all three tests. Most investigators in the field do not cut out pieces of the wallboard to visibly identify damage, nor do they perform depth surveys using a depth tool. The authors declare that they have no competing interests. Dissertation, University of Canterbury, NIJ (2009) Strengthening Forensic Science in the United States: A Path Forward. Paper presented at the Fire and Materials 2009 Conference. The characteristics distilled from the literature are that the ULG patterns will have level lines of demarcation with relatively uniform magnitude of damage, unless the upper layer is flowing out of a compartment and if so the lines of demarcation will be angled towards the opening. The results indicated that the novice raters were more reliable in their analysis of the DOFD to gypsum wallboard when using the DOFD method. Therefore, the visual identification of color changes through the cross-sectioning of wallboard will not be further addressed. Section 3, Ch. The statistics can be found in the Excel Spreadsheet associated with this review paper. 2010). The fire pattern studies revealed that the upper layer damage is very difficult to identify after the fire has transitioned into ventilation-controlled conditions. Twelve thermocouples were mounted in a grid array above the fuel item to capture temperatures for the duration of the tests. These tests were not conducted within a compartment. The search for patterns starts at the very widest part of the V or U shape, the outside of the fire's burn path. 2004). It was once thought that narrow V-patterns were produced by a fast developing fire and wide V-patterns were produced by a slow developing fire (Kennedy and Kennedy 1985). The tests will be summarized chronologically in this section and will be referred to in other sections of the literature review where the work specifically addresses that subject matter. Paper presented at the Fire and Materials Conference. All authors read and approved the final manuscript. In artists the Y-axis would be the creative skill, and the X-axis would be time, but in non artists the U shaped curve would not apply. Fire Safety Journal 4:281292, Babrauskas V (2005) Charring rate of wood as a tool for fire investigations. Cue 4- level lines of demarcation along all wall surfaces. An optical measurement method was developed to arrive at optical properties of smoke deposited out of a smoke layer onto glass filters. There are a total of 17 fire effects listed in NFPA (2014) that serve as the base list of observations for fire investigators (Table1). [1] It is called U shape development because of the shape of the letter U in correlation to a graph, skills developed in the U shaped fashion begin on a high position on a graph's Y-axis. The fire investigators observations are simply assessing the varying DOFD. Ventilation-generated fire patterns have been described in the literature as having a slight influence during fuel-controlled conditions, but become the predominant issue with the location and magnitude of damage after the compartment fire is ventilation-controlled (Shanley et al. curtains). The literature review of fire pattern usage in the fire investigation profession illustrates several gaps with the overall process of using damage to determine an area of origin. Underwriters Laboratories, Illinois (USA), Kerber S, Walton W (2005) Effect of Positive Pressure Ventilation on a Room Fire. Cue 3-elevation of the line of demarcation is consistent with the height of the fuel item. A conical pattern has been characterized as one that is produced when the interacting buoyant fire plume is restricted by an intersecting horizontal surface, spreading the heat across the bottom of the obstructing surface. [4] In theory, this result is because of an innate creative skill in children that is either lost to age with non-artist adults or practiced by adult artists. The surface then redirects the buoyant flow and its momentum across the bottom of the ceiling creating a ceiling jet, which begins to descend from the ceiling as an upper layer (Hicks et al. Alternative explanations are now commonly given when discussing penetrations through floors, including: radiant heat, furniture items, melting plastics and pre-existing openings in the floor during fully involved compartment fire (NFPA 2014) (Fig. In these texts the authors stressed that the investigator should evaluate low burns for possible ignition sources, but did not necessarily link the damage to ignitable liquids. Clean burn damage also occurred along the wall near the doorway opening in the fire with the longest full room involvement burning duration. predominantly fuel-controlled or ventilation-controlled) produce substantially lower temperatures. Also, the study illustrated that drywall seams, if no tape and mud was applied, would present areas of clean burn damage during ventilation-controlled conditions (Mealy et al. Recently, the National Academy of Sciences released a cautionary report regarding analysis that requires expert interpretation of observations (NIJ 2009). (2006; 2008) conducted a fire pattern reproducibility study using single fuel items. Currently, investigators have no reliable method for identifying varying DOFD for charring. The constant force is applied to the tool by two 3.3lb constant force springs. 2013; Wolfe et al. In addition, the ceiling jet velocity is highest near the centerline of the plume and decreases as it moves outward (Heskestad 2008). (2008)) noted that the lines of demarcation throughout the compartment would descend in elevation dependent on the header depth and type of opening, except the line of demarcation would descend lower in corners and ascend near ventilation openings. Not all compartment fires will transition through flashover (Drysdale 2011). 2013). Photograph of a Plume-Generated Fire Pattern (fire origin was located at the base of this damage-test conducted at EKU by author). The authors stated that fire leaves its fingerprints and that each finger of flame leaves its effects and the study of these effects will help you pick the spot where it burned first (Straeter and Crawford 1955). (1997)) and Gorbett et al. Fire Safety Journal 40:528554, Barnott A, Hardman R, Hoff N (2013) An Improved Method for Measuring Depth of Calcination in Fire Investigations. 1997; Gorbett et al. 1997; Hicks et al. irradiances measured 0.05m away range to near 80kW/m2 for the fastest burning specimens; however, 40kW/m2 was not recorded farther than 0.44m away and 20kW/m2 was not found beyond 0.88m distant. Arson investigators were surveyed about how they investigate fires and cited interpretation of burn indicators as the most common method of establishing arson. Fire and Arson Investigator Journal of the International Association of Arson Investigators 15:1619, Crofton, MD, Theobald C (1968) The Critical Distance for Ignition From Some Items of Furniture. American Society of Mechanical Engineers, Natural Convection in Enclosures, HTD 192:7381, Babrauskas V (1980) Estimating room flashover potential. Heat damage to the surface linings and the contents within the compartment after the fire is frequently the most readily visible and measurable. The varying DOFD discussed in NFPA 921 is consistent with the findings from the existing studies (Schroeder 1999; Hicks et al. Presently, much of this interpretation is implicit and subject to investigator bias, with assignment of interpretation to patterns being largely dependent on the investigators knowledge, experience, education, training and skill, without the benefit of a structured framework to help guide the investigator through the process. Currently, no systematic method exists for fire investigators to identify a fire pattern. The literature identified that investigators use the damage in two different ways. Shanley et al. However, most inverse problems are approached by first establishing direct solutions for well-posed problems. Putorti reported, comparisons of the conditions of the rooms and furnishings after the experiments resulted in the determination of several similarities, as well as many differences, between experiments with the same method of ignition (Putorti 1997). National Fire Protection Association, Massachusetts (USA), Harmathy T (1972) A new look at compartment fires, part I and part II. 14, 4th edn. 2008; NFPA 2014). Developing a process for the objective identification of areas requiring further attention during fire investigation that is universally accepted by the community is recommended to increase the reliability and accuracy of fire origin determinations. 1985). Fire Pattern Indicator, U or V Fire pattern that resembles a U or V shape and indicates the direction of fire progression in that area. Schroeders results varied widely as to depths of char in relation to the duration and intensity of exposed heat flux, which led him to conclude that wood was not a good indicator for predicting intensity of duration of exposures. In this text, it is stated that as heat marks begin to form at the top of a room as a result of the hot air that rises from the firethese marks get lower and lower on the wall. In fact, Kirk was very adamant that investigators should not conclude that the damage was from an ignitable liquid as such an interpretation was more often incorrect than otherwise (Kirk 1969). Riahi (2012) studied the soot deposition characteristics of three different fuels in bench-scale experiments and then against a gypsum wallboard lined wall. It was reported, many of the investigators had difficulty finding the location of the point of origin, in many cases indicating the opposite side of the room (Custer and Wright 1984). Gypsum wallboard is one of the more common lining materials for walls and ceilings used for construction of residential and commercial facilities. Therefore, no systematic scale for the degree of damage had been proposed or adopted. The compartments were 12ft by 12ft with 8ft ceiling heights (3.6m3.6m2.4m) with a single door opening 3ft by 6ft-10in. Dillon (1998) indicated that one could generalize a simplified flame shape based on a series of ISO-9705 room corner tests by using the average incident heat flux of 30kW/m2. Decision support frameworks are derived from the field of decision analysis, as well as from uncertainty analysis and risk analysis. Heat shadowing and protected areas were shown to assist investigators in determining that the fire did not originate behind certain contents (Shanley et al. U-shaped development, also known as U-shaped learning, is the typical pattern by which select physical, artistic, and cognitive skills are developed. Only later did the literature express this conical shape as two-dimensional shapes, including triangular shapes, columnar shapes, V-patterns, U-patterns and hourglass-patterns (Barracato 1979; Cooke and Ide 1985; Kennedy and Kennedy 1985). Paper presented at the International Symposium on Fire Investigations. 12). The cumulative heat exposure should be considered the leading factor in the creation of damage. The mixing of the air and UHCs has been shown to occur at the opening, along the gravity flow, around objects within the flow and opposite the opening along walls, specifically for doors (Abib and Jaluria 1992a, b; Quintiere and McCaffrey 1980). This misconception was dispelled in the first edition of NFPA 921 and is not prevalent within the current profession (Bieber 2014). Six studies in particular discuss the reproducibility in recreating similar truncated cone patterns under similar conditions (Shanley et al. The ventilation opening was varied throughout the test between a slit vent (2m0.2m) and the full door opening (2m0.9m). However, an assumption can be made for fuel-controlled fires that higher temperatures will occur at the plume interface with any building or contents surface. The temperature and resultant heat flux decreases with increasing radial distance from the plume centerline. Use of damage in fire investigation: a review of fire patterns analysis, research and future direction. The damage observed to wall, ceiling and content surfaces is an artifact of the fire dynamics for that fire. 4. A better definition is warranted for this term. American Re-Insurance. The job of a forensic scientist is to provide scientific evidence, notably the analysis of scientific or engineering data, to the justice system in order to reduce uncertainty (Taroni et al. Two tests also had a window that measured 3ft by 4ft in height (0.91m1.22m) with a 2ft, 6in. For example, the location of fire department entry, the use of positive pressure ventilation and the change of ventilation upon arrival should result in fire patterns that are similar to ventilation-generated fire patterns. Incident heat flux to wall, floor, or ceiling surfaces is dependent on the HRR of the fuel and standoff distance between the flame plume and the surface of interest. They also stated that based on the clean zone area, the flame height and the fire size can be calculated (Riahi 2012). None of these texts, however, provided a methodology to the reader on how to go about identifying what constitutes greater and lesser visible or measurable char damage. Next, the participants were provided with depth of char measurements for all content items and depth of calcination measurements for all of the walls for the same compartment fire and were asked to re-examine the photographs and select an area of origin again. 2007; Madrzykowski and Fleischmann 2012). In the mid-1980s there began a trend in the literature that spoke out against this misconception and began to provide a list of alternative explanations of damage to the floor (DeHaan 1983; Taylor 1985; Taylor 1986; DeHaan 1987; Eaton 1987; Wood et al. [5], There have been other human development theories in the past such as, There are branch theories that relate to these theories and the theories have different notions on how environmental stimuli change a person, but none dismiss or disprove the U-shaped development theory. Given these findings, damage cues 1, 2 and 4 are used as the most accurate damage cues for classifying a fire pattern generated by ventilation. In this study, experimental samples of gypsum wallboard were exposed to various heat fluxes at varying durations using the ASTM E1354, Cone Calorimeter radiant heater. sill height (0.812m). The Schroeder study (1999), however, was the first to quantify the depth of calcination and its relationship within fire investigations. Correspondingly, this heat source is often attributed to igniting contents throughout the compartment, especially those items located relatively high in elevation around the compartment (e.g. Chemical changes include the decomposition/pyrolysis, dehydration, or changes in color. Furthermore, average fire gas temperatures have been related to the ventilation factor compared to the total surface area of the compartment, commonly denoted by \( {A}_v\sqrt{H_v}/{A}_T. 1997; NFPA 2014; Gorbett et al. This method or a similar method should be further explored using the work done for gypsum wallboard (Gorbett et al. 1997). Cue 5-lines of demarcation are angled emanating from the fuel item. A scale ranging from 0 to 6 was developed for assigning a DOFD, with 0 indicating no visible damage and 6 indicating complete consumption. This study provides an understanding of the fire risk of building's exterior wall geometry design at different altitudes. Of course, apex is actually the antonym of the word desired here. clean burn) and with wash from the hoseline for suppression. The Posey study reported that an investigator could visibly identify subtle color changes in individually cut cross-sections of the wallboard and prescribe the DOFD associated with the color changes. There are numerous factors that may influence how a material is affected by heat and exposure to incomplete combustion products (e.g. The presence of a soffit and the size of an opening influences the depth of the damage within the compartment, however, as the compartment nears flashover damage begins to occur at lower elevations on all surfaces. Given the history of using fire patterns within the fire investigation profession, it was reasonable that they would also be included in the first edition (1992), and all subsequent editions of NFPA 921 Guide for Fire and Explosion Investigations. Identification of varying DOFD throughout the compartment serves as the basis for interpretation by the investigator. Interscience Communications, London (UK), Kerber S (2010) Impact of Ventilation on Fire Behavior in Legacy and Contemporary Residential Construction. This spreadsheet provides all of the test details, general instrumentation results, list of indicators identified or not and provides the probability for the identification of these indicators. Around the late 1970s there was a movement within the profession to describe fire patterns by descriptions of their geometric shapes (e.g. 1997). Chapter 3, SFPE Handbook of Fire Protection Engineering. 2006; Hicks et al. 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Review paper completed with television sets placed on a wood stand next to an upholstered chair and... That decision analysis, as well as from uncertainty analysis and risk analysis ( NIJ 2009 Strengthening. Were conducted at EKU by author ) furniture items measured 3ft by.... The compartments were 12ft by 12ft with 8ft ceiling heights ( 3.6m3.6m2.4m ) with a door... Located at the true origin persisted in all three tests radial distance from the item... 2010 ( Gorbett et al fire patterns analysis was in 2010 ( Gorbett et al and proximity ( e.g 4:281292... Journal 4:281292, Babrauskas V ( 1980 ) Estimating room flashover potential )! Convection in Enclosures, HTD 192:7381 u shaped fire pattern Babrauskas V ( 2005 ) Charring rate wood. ) Strengthening Forensic Science in the fire pattern to better evaluate what literature exists, Chen a ( )... The statistics can be found in Additional file 1 smoke deposited out a! This damage-test conducted at EKU by author ) changes include the decomposition/pyrolysis, dehydration, or changes color... Investigators were surveyed about how they investigate fires and cited interpretation of burn indicators as the most visible! The three most common flashover correlations summarized within Additional file 1 associated this. Point of contention then would be the manner and reason in which the ventilation opening was created line of are! In the United States: a review of fire Protection Engineering array above the fuel to! Point of contention then would be the manner and reason in which the ventilation opening was created as... With wash from the existing studies ( Schroeder 1999 ; Hicks et al is affected heat! Investigation: a Path Forward, the visual identification of color changes through the floor and on/around furniture items and... Shapes ( e.g, direction and proximity ( e.g approached by first establishing direct solutions for well-posed problems )... Approached by first establishing direct solutions for well-posed problems conducted at Eastern Kentucky University ( Gorbett et....

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